Dispersal is more simply defined as movement that results in an increase in the mean distance between individuals. Both migration and dispersal may lead to emigration of a pest from one crop and its eventual immigration into another. Local dispersal by insects may be effected by migratory behaviors, or by short host-seeking flights.
Dispersal by insects on a local scale has been extensively studied in aphids. All of these studies use techniques that show that the insects moved from one place to another, but their behavior during dispersal is not known, i. Thus, we cannot categorically state that the insects were all true migrants in the sense of the definition we have provided.
Whatever the behavioral states of the insects, they are primarily relocated to new host plants as a result of being carried by the wind. Some of the aphids that take off and have phototactic flight behavior are evidently carried large distances on the wind see Loxdale et al.
These insects may embark on windborne migratory flights that can carry them for great distances, but the ecological importance of this has recently been challenged Loxdale et al. They argue that while long distance dispersal is possible, the majority move locally. Evidence for local migration by pest insects has been collected from a number of reports on the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae Sulzer. For example, a variant of this species R2 that is particularly resistant to insecticides was found to be concentrated in northern Britain in samples taken between and , and the incidence of resistant aphids had not changed appreciably since surveys in Furk Other resistant variants of this species have been surveyed, and are known to have stable regional distributions ffrench-Constant and Devonshire This situation would be predicted by a local dispersal of individuals with limited regional gene flow.
In the UK, green peach aphid populations in the south and west are more susceptible to insecticides than those in the north, and thus it seems that there is limited interaction between these populations.
As discussed in Loxdale et al. This is especially true if we need to predict these occurrences or design management programs that take dispersal into account. The control of virus disease in Idaho in the 's is a good example of this approach, demonstrating how short-range flight of insects can be economically important. In the early 's, potato crops in Idaho, United States US were suffering large economic losses to viruses, especially to potato leaf roll virus that is transmitted by green peach aphids and causes stunted growth and yellowing of foliage.
In addition, within field sampling showed a greater number of aphids, and higher disease incidence on the side of the field closest to the towns Bishop Viruliferous aphids and potatoes were found in the towns' gardens. Problems were related to the fact that is was common practice for gardeners to use small, diseased potatoes as seed pieces. Short duration flights of aphids from the gardens to the surrounding fields were implicated as the cause of the disease outbreaks.
Based on this implied local migration by green peach aphids,a control program was implemented in an area-wide program in southeastern Idaho beginning in Bishop There were three main components to this IPM program: 1: supplying seed potatoes certified as being virus free to home gardeners, 2: malathion application to transplants and gardeners' potatoes and 3: removal or treatment of peach and apricot seedlings with oxydemeton-methyl where the insects overwinter.
The focus of our laboratory's research is the ecology of the sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius. This insect has been observed in the US since the early part of this century Russell It has the ability to transmit a number of viral pathogens Brown and Nelson and additionally reduces yield through direct feeding damage Perring et al.
More recently, the problems associated with honeydew whitefly excreta and sooty mold, Capnodium spp. Although sampling plans and action thresholds are now being developed for melons, Tonhasca et al. Dennehy et al. Growers of most crops are primarily left with one principal option, i.
The situation mandates the need for alternative control strategies. We are convinced that a better understanding of flight behavior by Bemisia will lead to the development of new cultural control techniques involving computer simulation models that can predict when, where and how far Bemisia isgoing to disperse.
An early concern, which was pivotal, was whether B. We had discovered that wingbeat frequency was not significantly correlated with wing loading for these small insects Byrne et al.
Larger insects seem to employ a strategy similar to other flying animals, i. The lack of correlation for these two values in whiteflies led to erroneous assumptions concerning the ability of whiteflies to sustain flight. On the other hand, we knew that the internal lipids in adult females of B. These compounds are commonly thought to serve as an energy source for insects during flight.
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Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Evolutionary Ecology Naturwissenschaften Journal of Ornithology By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines.
If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. Advanced search. Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. Download PDF. Abstract Although migration is a common behaviour, the effects of this annual two-way event on the speciation process are poorly understood, even though birds, which are commonly migratory b played a critical role in the development of speciation theory 1 , 2.
Main Seasonal migrants, particularly those travelling long distances, have few recognized limits to their ability to disperse into new environments 5 , 6. Figure 1: Hermit thrush Catharus guttatus ; top and Swainson's thrush C. Full size image. References 1 Darwin, C. Google Scholar 2 Mayr, E. Book Google Scholar 3 Kondrashov, A. Article Google Scholar 7 Helbig, A.
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